Victorian Armchairs
We
buy and sell Victorian armchairs and Edwardian armchairs,
Victorian sofas and Edwardian sofas, Victorian settees and
Edwardian settees, Victorian couches and Edwardian couches,
Victorian ottomans and Edwardian ottomans, and Victorian stools
and Edwardian stools.
We
offer a full re-upholstery service, with renovation and restoration
of your own upholstery, all in our traditional workshop. John,
our upholsterer, has over 35 years experience.
We
have a large selection of unrestored armchairs and sofas in
stock.
See
below for our range of fine replica Victorian armchairs and
sofas.
HOWARD
& SONS ARMCHAIR
Very
large and fine easy library armchair, by Howard and Sons
Height
0.870, Width 0.870, Depth 1.030
Price
SOLD (VA4)
HOWARD
AND SONS ARMCHAIR
Fine
easy library armchair, by Howard & Sons
Height
0.830, Width 0.670, Depth 0.970
Price
SOLD (VA3)
EDWARDIAN
WING ARMCHAIR
Fine
and large Edwardian wing library armchair, with Mahogany legs.
Height
1.180, Width 0.840, Depth 0.840
Price
£1150.00 (VA2)
HOWARD
& SONS ARMCHAIR
Fine
and large Victorian easy chair, by Howard and Sons.
Height
0.810, width 0.820, Depth 1.020
Price
£1450.00 (VA1)
PRICING
The price for an original Victorian
armchair, fully renovated and re-upholstered starts at £850.00
(includes VAT and excludes fabric 7m and delivery).
The price for an orginal Victorian
sofa, fully renovated and re-upholstered starts at £1400.00
(includes VAR and excludes fabric 13m and delivery).
We
can replicate any arm-chair or sofa you have, and can upholster
in any of our extensive range
of fabrics, or we can use your own choice of fabric.
Please email
for prices.
RANGE
OF
REPLICA VICTORIAN ARMCHAIRS AND SOFAS
Each
sofa and armchair are made to order, and the sizes listed
can be adapted for clients specifications. We can adapt the
height width and depth of any of our armchairs and sofas,
and we are able to match any existing armchair or sofa you
may wish to copy.
We
can email larger images and further details upon request email.
A
GUIDE TO UPHOLSTERY
(HOW TO UPHOLSTER,
RECOVER & REPAIR TRADITIONAL AND MODERN CHAIRS, SOFAS,
OTTOMANS & STOOLS)
TOOLS
Magnetic tacking hammer
This is the most basic of all upholstery tools. There are
two main types.
1 A hammer with a plain 12 mm diameter head at one end, and
an 8 mm diameter magnetized cabriole head at the other. The
cabriole head is smaller and is used in places which are difficult
to locate with the larger head. The un-magnetized head is
also useful for nailing.
2 A hammer with a magnetized head at one end and a tack removing
claw at the other end. Care should be taken not to damage
the fabric when using this claw.
Tacks are still traditionally held in the mouth for convenience.
The beginner may be put off by the danger of swallowing one,
but this risk is minimized if only about six are held at one
time and they are stored beneath the tongue, to be brought
forward as required. Each tack can be withdrawn directly from
the mouth on to the magnetized end of the hammer provided
the tack is turned by the tongue so that the head faces outwards
from the mouth. Accuracy in placing comes with practice.
Staple gun
This is used by manufacturers for speeding up production.
It is not necessary for the home upholsterer. Guns are obtainable
either air powered from a compressor, or they can be plugged
in to the normal electricity mains.
Tape
A flexible 2 m metal tape is required for general upholstery
work. One which is graduated in both metric and imperial units
will be useful in helping the reader to convert from one system
to the other. The reader should accustom himself to think
directly in metric rather than convert continuously between
the scales. A straight wooden rule is more convenient for
cutting fabric on a flat table.
Pincers
A pair of pincers is required for extracting nails and staples
when stripping a frame.
Shears
A pair of shears is necessary to cut out fabric and for general
upholstery work. Heavy duty shears for cutting fabric are
usually 300 mm long but a pair 250 mm is suitable for both
operations. It is worth investing in a pair with a good brand
name.
Bench or trestles
A bench, or a pair of trestles, is required to support the
work at a height suitable for easy working, usually about
700 from the ground. The bench size should be about 750 mm
square, and the trestles about 750 mm by 200 mm. A padded
roll is often tacked round the perimeter of the trestles to
prevent damaging the work.
Mallet and ripping chisel
The ripping chisel is used for extracting tacks. Although
there arc many types available, an ordinary screwdriver with
a plastic or wooden flat-topped handle will serve the purpose
adequately. A mallet should always be used with the chisel
to prevent damaging the handle. Hold the blade on the edge
of the tack head and hit the chisel handle with the mallet.
A few blows may be required before the tack is lifted. The
tack should be ripped out in the direction of the grain to
avoid splitting the timber.
Staple extractor
Because of the ease with which staples can be put into a frame,
there are usually more of them to extract than if tacks had
been used. There arc many tools available for extracting staples.
The one illustrated is one of the more successful types. It
works by prizing the staple up with one of the end points.
A final twist pulls the staple free.
Webbing stretcher
This is used for stretching webbing tightly on a scat or back.
There are several types available. If the stretcher is needed
infrequently, a plain block of wood can be used. The webbing
is wound around the block which is then levered against the
frame to strain the webbing. Other specially made stretchers
have grooved edges which fit against the rail to prevent the
stretcher from slipping. One type uses a metal lever to hold
the webbing, while the bat type has a slot through which the
webbing is held by means of a peg. Another type has a series
of spikes at one end by which the webbing is held. The disadvantage
of the latter is that webbing is wasted due to the damage
caused by the spikes.
Needles
There are four basic types of needle required by the upholsterer.
1 Regulator. This is used to even stuffing. It should not
be used over a fabric because holes may result. Skewers are
safer for this purpose as they produce smaller holes, but
care needs to be taken. The flattened end of the regulator
can be used for moving stuffing beneath a fabric where a hand
can not reach. The needles come in different lengths, but
one 250 mm long should be adequate.
2 Skewers. These are not only used for regulating, but also
for temporarily holding material in position before slip stitching.
They are also used when making a spring edge for attaching
the scrim to the edge wire prior to sewing.
3 Straight stitching needle. This is used for stitching edges,
and for threading buttons through the upholstery. Both ends
of the needle are pointed.
A bayonet needle is similar, but is triangular in section
down one third of its length. The purpose of this needle is
to cut through stuffing which a stitching needle cannot penetrate.
It can be obtained in different lengths, but one stitching
needle about 300 mm long is satisfactory for most purposes.
4 Circular needle. This is semi-circular and is used when
the stitching needle is not practical, such as for sewing
hessian around a spring unit. This needle is about 100 mm
long, but smaller ones used for slip stitching are about 50
mm long.
A spring needle is bayonet pointed, and is used, as its name
implies, for sewing hour glass springs to webbing. This, too,
is used for sewing through stuffing which an ordinary circular
needle cannot penetrate.
Button making machine
This machine converts a two-piece metal mould and a disc of
fabric into a button. The top half of the mould forms the
shape of the button and the lower half contains the fixing.
This may be by a metal loop, a cloth tuft or a spike.
A peddle operated machine can be used more efficiently than
a hand machine. The object of both types is to bring the moulds
together, trapping the fabric between them. Automatic electric
machines are being used increasingly in factories.
Buttons can be obtained in different sizes, ranging from small
ones suitable for deep buttoning work, to the larger ones
of which very few arc needed for each job.
Loose seat machine
This is used in mass production to simplify the upholstering
of dining chair type loose seats. The machine consists essentially
of a jig to hold the frame, and a rain to compress the stuffing.
The cover is placed upside down in the machine, followed by
the stuffing, and then the base which, if necessary, has been
previously covered with webbing and hessian. The ram, which
usually works by compressed air, is brought down. This presses
the frame on to the stuffing. All that is now required is
to tack or staple the overhanging cover to the frame.
Cushion filling machine
This machine was common when spring interior cushions were
used. Now the use of dacron in cushions has created again
a demand for the machine. It can be worked manually by handles
or it can be air or electrically powered. The cushion is placed
in the machine and the lid is closed. The sides of the cushion
are compressed by the machine and the cover is slipped over
the mouth of the machine. A ram then forces the cushion forward
into the cover. The filling of the cushion is completed by
hand.
Electrical cutters
Special cutters can be obtained to cut anything from flexible
foams to layers of fabrics. There are two main types of electrical
cutter.
1 The straight knife which operates by the oscillation of
a vertical blade, and can cut greater thicknesses than the
round knife but is slightly slower.
2 The round knife which cuts by the rotation of a circular
cutting wheel, is usually fitted with an automatic knife sharpener.
MATERIALS
Tacks
There arc two types of tack: 1 improved and 2 fine. Improved
tacks are stouter, and are used where greater holding power
is necessary, such as for tacking webbing and hessian. Fine
tacks are used mainly on fabric.
Both types of tack can be obtained in a variety of sizes,
from 6 mm which are used on thin plywood facings, to 15 mm
which are used on webbing, and where many thicknesses of material
are to be penetrated. Rail thickness should be taken into
account when choosing tack sizes, because too large a tack
may split a narrow rail.
Gimp pins
These are obtainable in different colours to match a fabric.
They arc 12 mm long and are cut with a small head to be inconspicuous
in use. They are used for fixing cover along the edge of a
show wood frame, such as may be found at the top of a chair
leg. They arc also used for fixing gimp in place.
Nails
1 No-sag nails These are used for fixing serpentine spring
clips to the frame. They are 21 mm long and are serrated down
their length to prevent them loosening in use.
2 Clout nails These are 25 mm long and are much thicker than
no-sag nails. They are blue, have serrations down their length
and are used mainly for fixing spring units to the frame.
Twines
These are made mainly from flax and hemp, but synthetic twines
are gaining popularity for certain purposes where a greater
strength is needed such as for fixing buttons.
1 Stitching twine was originally used for stitching roll
edges but it can be used wherever a thin but strong twine
is required such as for fixing buttons.
2 Spring twine is thicker and stronger than stitching twine.
Its original use was for sewing loose springs to webbing but
is now used more widely.
3 Laid cord is not frequently used. It is a thick cord for
lashing springs together to form an integral unit. It is made
by laying the fibres side by side to prevent the cord from
stretching.
4 Piping cord is used in making upholstery with self-piped
seams. The cord is attached to strips of the fabric, which
is then sewn to the main fabric panel. See CHAPTER 7 page
48. Piping cord is made from synthetic fibres, cotton and
compressed paper, in different diameters and with different
stiffness ratios for different types of fabric.
Webbing
This is used as a platform to support hour glass springs
and other fillings. It is not being used as widely as in the
past owing to new springing systems which are available.
There are two main types of webbing.
1 Brown webbing which is made from jute in a plain weave
and can be obtained in rolls of different widths.
2 Black and white webbing which is more expensive but is
of better quality. It is made from flax, woven with a twill
weave.
Hessian
This is a loosely woven jute cloth used for covering springs,
loose stuffings and webbing. It is also used for making flies
(which are extension pieces, sewn to a fabric, and are hidden
inside the upholstery, therefore saving material). Hessians
are available in different weights, the heavier hessians being
known as tarpaulins.
When fitting hessian, keep warp and weft lines straight, as
with a fabric. Hessian can be cut in a straight line by withdrawing
a thread and cutting along this line. All hessian edges should
be turned over for tacking, unless neatness is of more importance
than strength, in which case they should be folded in.
Scrim
This is also made from jute. It is similar to hessian except
that it has a more open weave and the threads are flat in
cross section as opposed to the hessian's round threads. It
is generally lighter than hessian. It is used for covering
the first stuffing through which a stitched edge is sewn.
Keeping the lines straight on the scrim aids the stitching
of a straight edge because one thread can be followed as a
guide for the line of stitching.
Calico
This is a light, bleached cotton fabric. Strips of calico
are used for attaching foam to a frame and as a base cover
for upholstery. It is also used for covering upholstery prior
to fitting the fabric, as described under Sewing a spring
edge.
Rubber webbing
This is a form of springing, as opposed to the webbing previously
mentioned. It consists of a core of rubber sandwiched between
two layers of rayon cord which have been cut on the bias (diagonally).
When the webbing is stretched, the cords control the amount
of elongation in the webbing and, as the cords draw closer
together, the webbing retains its strength. By varying the
internal arrangements of cords, rubber and the angle of cut,
it is possible to alter the characteristics of webbing.
All-rubber webbings are also available but, as they have
no woven reinforcement, they do not retain their strength
when stretched. They give a greater deflection of the cushion
than reinforced webbing.
Different webbings have different characteristics. By selecting
the appropriate type, the required degree of resilience can
be obtained. The depth of spring can be determined by:
(a) controlling the initial tension on the webbing
(b) using a specified width of webbing
(c) adapting the spacing of the webbing to conform with the
loading on specific points.
The type and thickness of the cushion should conform with
the characteristics of the base.
Fitting rubber webbing
There is wide scope for individual ingenuity when applying
webbing to produce seats and backs which can be adapted anthropometrically
to the user. Webbing which is applied from front to back on
a seat has the advantage that the width, and therefore the
weight of the sitter, is distributed across all the straps
by the cushion. The cushion is also free to rise and fall
between the sides of the frame without being tilted inwards
around the sitter.
Disadvantages of this method are that a soft front edge can
not be obtained, and the support given by the webbing is no
greater at the points of maximum load than in less loaded
areas.
Webbing stretched from side to side can be given a soft front
edge; and as the zone of heaviest load occupies the rear half
of the seat, increased support can be incorporated in this
area, by giving the straps greater initial tension or by using
wider or more closely spaced straps. Where additional support
is needed the straps can be run in both directions.
Fitting straps on the back can be treated in a similar manner.
Loads encountered here are less than on a seat. When the webbing
is placed from side to side it is possible to provide firmness
for the lumbar region and the head rest while retaining greater
softness in other parts of the back. Concave backs can be
made by using cross webs in low tension, pulled into shape
by verticals under higher tension.
Webbing can be obtained in a continuous roll and can be applied
by direct tacking or stapling. It should not be turned over
at the ends. There are many types of clips available for attaching
webbing to both wooden and metal frames. These clips are responsible,
to a greater extent, for the successful introduction of the
webbing because they simplify its application. The neatest
and most popular clip is the one which fits into a grooved
rail and ensures equal tension on all straps.
Rubber platforms
These area variation to rubber webbing. They are made from
a synthetic rubber, and provide the newest form of springing
system. They can be obtained in different sizes, and are attached
to the frame at four points. The platform is fitted under
a tension of between 8 to 15% in order to function correctly.
This percentage has to be worked out when calculating the
size of platform required.
Spring systems
1 Loose hour-glass springs. This is a traditional type of
spring which was used in all sprung upholstery before 1920.
Its use is associated with traditional hand stitched work
which is very expensive in labour. The springs are double
cone in form and are made from
copper-plated wire. The springs arc coiled and knotted at
both ends by machine.
2 Patent spring units. These arc assembled units, available
for seats, backs and arms. They have a flexible wire mesh
surface into which conical springs are threaded. The mesh
may have a framing of rigid wire. The single cone springs
arc riveted to steel laths at the base of the spring. Some
units arc fitted with tension springs which arc fixed at intervals
between the cone springs and arc attached to steel strips
between the laths. Tension springs provide added comfort to
the unit.
Double spring units arc not very popular, but they give added
luxury to a seat. The base layer of springs is similar to
the single spring unit, but the upper layer contains hour
glass springs which may or may not be covered in calico or
hessian pockets to muffle any spring noise.
3 Tension springs. These are suitable for seats and backs
where the design does not allow for a full spring unit. Although
rubber webbing is a strong competitor to tension springs,
they are still being widely used. The plain metal spring is
used where they are to be covered by upholstery, but when
they arc exposed or in contact with a cushion, they can be
obtained with a PVC or woven fabric covering. They arc supplied
in 1-22 to 2-03 mm SWG (14 to 18 gauge) wire, and in a variety
of lengths. They are fitted under slight tension, usually
between 35 mm to 50 mm and 45 mm length. The tension on these
springs has an opposite mechanical action to the compression
which coil springs undergo. Tension springs are fitted by
direct nailing, hooking around nails, fixing to metal plates
and by nailing them into a groove.
4 Serpentine or 'o-sag' springs Serpentine springs can be
supplied cut to length, in a continuous roll or made up into
units. A thicker gauge spring should be used on the seat than
on a back. They do not exist as a spring until they arc uncoiled
and fixed to the frame. They are constantly trying to return
to their original circular form which gives them a permanent
arc.
Five springs fixed from front to back or bottom to top, are
normally used in chair seats and backs. They arc fixed to
the frame by means of special clips of which there is a variety
for different applications. Connecting links can be used to
join the springs together so that they perform as a single
unit. If connecting links are not available, the springs should
be tied together with a thick twine across the centre of the
springs.
5 Pullmalex suspension unit This is another recent springing
system which is suitable for seats and backs. It consists
of a Hexolator, a wire platform cross gridded with twisted
kraft paper centre ropes, which is fastened to the frame by
tension springs. They are quick and easy to fix by means of
anchors which are attached to the tension springs. Only thin
upholstering is required over this spring.
Flexible foams
The manufacture of latex foam
Natural latex, containing the rubber molecule polyisoprene,
is obtained from the rubber tree, and once was the only source
of rubber. Today, synthetic rubber, styrene butadiene latex,
is usually blended with natural latex to extract the best
properties of both types of foam.
Natural latex is obtained as a juice from the hevea brasiliensis,
the rubber tree which is cultivated in Malaysia, Indonesia,
Ceylon, West Africa and Brazil. After extracting the latex
by tapping the tree, ammonia is added to the latex to prevent
it from drying. The latex is concentrated by extracting water,
which accounts for about 65% of the liquid tapped from the
tree. The latex is shipped to the site where it is to be manufactured.
Ammonia is extracted by blowing air through the latex. There
arc two main processes of manufacture.
The first process mechanically foams the latex before its
poured into the moulds. Various chemicals are dispersed in
water and are then mixed with the latex. The most important
of these chemicals is sulphur, a yellow solid, which, later
in the process with the action of heat, brings about the change
known as vulcanization or curing. The sulphur causes the latex
molecules to crosslink, which prevents the latex from becoming
soft and loosing its shape during hot weather, and going hard
in cold weather. Other chemicals mixed in are soap which helps
with the foaming, and anti-oxidants which protect against
oxygen in the air. The mixture is then allowed to mature under
controlled time_and temperature.
After maturing, foaming takes place. Foaming is continuous,
by passing the mixture with air through a mixing head. The
action through the rotor causes the air to be uniformly mixed
with the foam. Various degrees of firmness can be produced
at this stage. The foam passes through a hose to where an
operator fills the moulds. Gelling or solidification of the
foam in the mould is brought about by two additives, zinc
oxide and sodium silicofluoride, which are added after frothing
the foam. It is during gelling that the air bubbles are interconnected.
The moulds pass through a steam chamber for 25 minutes, which
causes the sulphur to vulcanize the rubber. The foam cushion
is extracted from the mould, washed, dried and inspected.
An alternative method of foaming is by chemical means. The
latex compound is foamed by oxygen which is extracted from
the chemical hydrogen peroxide. A calculated quantity of hydrogen
peroxide and a catalyst (a substance which helps the chemical
reaction to occur without undergoing change itself) are stirred
into the latex compound, and this is immediately poured into
a mould. Decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide with subsequent
foaming of the latex compound takes place after the mould
is closed. Freezing, gelling by carbon dioxide gas, and vulcanization
are carried out as before.
Cavity design in latexfoam
Latex foam can be obtained either plain or with cavities.
Solid foam contains much rubber which serves no useful purpose.
Large communicating cavities are included to increase the
comfort of a cushion. This is because when sitting on a solid
sheet of latex, air is driven out and it eventually feels
hard. In cavity cushion, the weight is taken by the walls
of the cavities, causing them to flex slightly. Cavities are
made by building plugs into the lid of the mould. The design
and layout of cavities control the hardness of the foam, and
it is possible to provide different hardnesses in different
parts of a foam block.
Types of latex foam
There are five main types of moulding, each group of which
covers a range of standard products. Special mouldings can
be produced when the quantity ordered justifies the making
of a mould. When this is uneconomic handbuilding is used.
1 Non-reversible units These have a smooth surface with the
underside showing the cavities. There is a wide range of mouldings
which are used for fixed upholstery work.
2 Reversible units Made from two non-reversible units which
are bonded together with the cavities on the inside. They
are used for loose cushions. A wide range of standard mouldings
are available.
3 Cavity sheet Made in sheets up to 1800 mm by 1400 mm and
from 25 mm to 100 mm in thickness. They are available with
various degrees of firmness and are used mainly for handbuilding.
4 Plain sheet in sheet sizes up to 1800 mm by 1400 mm and
from 12 mm to 30 mm in thickness. They are available in various
degrees of firmness, and are used for covering arm pads, dining
chairs, bar seating and handbuilding.
Polyether foams
These are open cell flexible polyurethane ether foams as opposed
to the polyurethane ester foams which are not used in similar
flexible form in upholstery. Polyether is cheaper in price
than latex foam, and is available in various thicknesses and
densities, including densities lower than can be obtained
in latex. It is therefore possible to choose a suitable foam
for almost any requirement. The density is controlled by the
chemicals which are mixed when making the foam. Fire retardent
grades of foam are also available.
The main defect of polyether is that it offers a high initial
resistance to deformation, although once a certain load has
been reached this property disappears. This is known as hysteresis,
and can be described as giving a sudden sinking feeling. These
foams have been modified to such a degree that this property
is no longer so noticeable. The chemicals carbon dioxide and
urethane polymer are reacted together no further vulcanizing
is then needed as with latex, because after foaming, the polyether
sets into its final form. There are two ways by which polyether
can be made:
1 Prepolymer The ingredients react together before foaming
begins. This allows greater control to be kept over the process,
which ensures that the polyether will contain the required
properties.
2 One-shot In this case, mixing and foaming take place simultaneously.
Bonded chip foam
This is made from reprocessed waste polyether foam which is
cut into small granules. The polyether chips are mixed in
a preditermined ratio with a precatalysed polyurethane resin
in an extruding machine. The resin crosslinks under pressure
and sometimes heat, and the chipfoam emerges the same shape
as the die at the head of the extruder.
Chipfoam is available from 2 mm in thickness. The thinner
layers are rotary cut from a cylinder of chipfoam, in which
the cylinder is peeled to give a continuous length of chipfoam.
It is available in many grades, giving densities up to ten
times greater than is possible in polyether foam.
Chipfoam is used in better quality upholstery as a base layer,
over which a softer padding material is fitted. It can be
used to advantage, together with a moulded rubber edge profile,
over a seat spring.
Rubber profiles
These are made from latex and chipfoam and are available with
different shaped cross sections for every possible roll and
edge application. They can be glued to foam or tacked directly
to a frame.
Fibre
Loose fibre is not used much now in upholstery owing to the
time and skill involved in its correct use. Different types
are available, each being characterised by colour. Coir fibre,
also known as ginger fibre, is obtained from the coconut husk,
and is the most resilient type. It is shipped from Ceylon
in bales which are broken open, and the fibre is teased to
separate the fibres. A dust extraction system removes any
remaining husk and the shorter fibres which add to the bulk
but not to the quality of the fibre.
Algerian grass, often called black and green fibre, is obtained
from the Algerian palm tree and is the next best quality of
fibre.
Fibre pads are more convenient to use than loose fibre. These
are made by needling a predetermined quantity on to a hessian
backing.
Curled hair
This is used as little as fibre for the reasons stated above.
It is more resilient than fibre and is much softer to the
touch. Hair is usually obtained as a mixture of horse, cattle
and hog hair, the proportions depending on price. Horse hair
is obtained from the mane and tail and is of better quality
than cattle hair which, in turn, is better than hog hair.
The hair is first washed, and a proportion is dyed black.
After mixing, the hair is spun into rope, and a curl is set
in by steaming or boiling the rope. Heating also sterilizes
the hair. After drying, the ropes are stored to allow them
to mature. When required, the rope is untwisted and teased,
or it is needled on to hessian to make hair pads.
Rubberized hair
This is obtained in sheets of varying densities. It is made
by bonding curled hair with rubber latex which is then compressed
to the required thickness and density.
Felt
Best quality felt is made from cotton linters which are obtained
from the waste of the cotton plant after the cotton fibres
have been extracted. These linters are pressed into an even
layer. Felts can also be made out of rag flock made from processed
rags, but this product is not as resilient as cotton felt.
To conform to British Standards, the rags need to contain
So to 60% wool. Felt is used over fibre and hair to prevent
fibres from working through the covering fabric.
Polyester fibrefill
This is a recently developed cushion filling material, made
in terylene and dacron, which has contributed enormously to
the comfort of seating. It is available as a bonded batting,
in which the sheets are lightly bonded with acrylic resin
on each side, making the material more compact and easier
to handle. Unbonded batting is also available, in which the
fibrefill is carded and folded into layers, which are then
sandwiched between a loosely woven cheese-cloth.
The fibre has good bulking power, and cushions filled with
the material are characterised by a full appearance. The fibre
is very soft and recovers well from compression. This is due
to a new three dimensional spiral crimp, or a saw-tooth type
crimp, which is given to each fibre.
Fibrefill can be used by itself in a cushion or in combination
with any type offoam which will blend with the fibre. When
a core of foam is being used, cut the foam about the same
size as the cushion cover, and wrap the required number of
layers around the cushion. If unbonded batting is being used,
stitch the cheese-cloth together along three sides for a neater
appearance of the cushion. Keep the unsewn edge to the front
of the cushion. Bonded batting can be lightly glued to the
foam. If a 100% fibrefill cushion is required, use the unbonded
batting and fold it to about 25%, longer and wider than the
cushion size. Use about 370 gm/m2 (4.4 oz per sq ft) in a
seat cushion, and 1220 gm/m2 (4 oz per sq ft) in a back cushion.
Kapok
This is a vegetable filling material obtained from the seed
pods of the kapok tree. It is used in cushions as a cheap
substitute for feathers and down. The fibre comes from Java
and the Dutch East Indies where it is washed, graded, and
compressed into bales for shipping. When it arrives in this
country, it is reprocessed by drawing by suction through a
hopper, in which the kapok is beaten by arms revolving on
an axis. This separates seeds and sand, and expands the kapok
into its fluffy and light form. Kapok is extremely light because
of the porous nature of the fibre, but in spite of this, water
does not penetrate it very easily. Because of this property
it is used as a filling for upholstery in ships, and lifesaving
equipment.
Feathers and down
These are still used extensively in the more expensive traditional
upholstery. Down obtained from the cider duck is more expensive
than feathers but is rarely used by itself. Feathers are normally
mixed m to give extra weight and to lower the cost. Down contains
no large quills and has a much greater filling capacity than
feathers.
Feathers arc obtained mainly from poultry, much of which is
imported from China. Cheaper grades of feathers arc chopped
to prevent there being felt through the fabric.
Feathers and down arc weighed, and then filled by vacuum through
a hose into waxed calico cases which prevent the quills from
penetrating the fabric. The cases are often divided into three
or four separate pockets to spread the filling equally throughout
the cushion. The case should be slightly larger than the cushion
cover into which it is to fit.
Castors
These are a necessary fitting for upholstery, and much scientific
experiment has gone into perfecting different types. The ball
type is very popular because its patented design ensures almost
frictionless and silent mobility.
Castors can be provided with different wheels for various
floor surfaces, and there are different methods of fixing
them to metal and wood frames. There are two main methods.
The first is by a screw plate, and the second is with a socket
fixing, where the socket fits into a drilled hole in the frame,
and the peg of the castor can be pushed into the socket.
Glides can be fitted to light furniture which does not need
wheeling about. They can be fitted by hammering on directly,
or by means of a socket.
UPHOLSTERY FABRICS
Traditionally, the upholstery fabric market has been predominantly
based on a number of fabric types, including moquettes, velvets,
tapestries and brocades. Recently there has been a strong
move towards the woollen Scandinavian boucle type of fabric.
Acrylic velvets are also being exploited, due to their brightness
and the clarity of colouration that they can be given, also
to their warmth, softness to touch, durability and easy cleaning
properties. The trend has particularly moved away from moquettes.
The choice of fabric is a major factor influencing the success
or failure of any job. A well chosen cover can transform a
mediocre design into something attractive, but a badly chosen
cover can make even a well upholstered chair appear drab.
Certain covers which may suit certain styles of upholstery
may be unsuitable if used on other designs. A cover should
be chosen which fits in with surrounding materials, considering
texture, pattern and colour. The amount of wear that is likely
to take place must also be taken into account when buying
the fabric.
Woven fabrics
1Bedford cord A fabric with ribs running in the direction
of the warp. It is made in a plain or twill weave, and can
only be obtained in single colours.
2 Brocade A finely woven jacquard fabric with a mufti-colour
pattern. Originally it was a heavy silk fabric with elaborate
pattern, made with silver or gold thread. It is made by floating
extra coloured threads on the back of a plainly woven ground
cloth, which are brought to the surface when required. Brocades
are made from cotton, wool, silk and manmade fibres, and have
a firm and smooth hard wearing surface.
3 Brocatelle This is similar to brocade, but the heavily
figured pattern is raised above the weft backing.
4 Corduroy A cut pile fabric with ribs running in the warp
direction. The weft yarns float on the surface at intervals
which are then cut, brushed, and singed to form the pile.
It is a hard wearing fabric, made from cotton and man-made
fibres, and is in the medium to high price range.
S Chintz A closely woven printed cotton fabric in a plain
weave and with a glazed surface.
6 Crash A heavy, rough textured, plain woven fabric made
from jute, flax, hemp and cotton.
7 Cretonne Similar to chintz but without the glazing.
8 Damask Similar to brocade, but it is flatter and is reversible.
It was originally made in Damascus from where it takes its
name.
9 Denim A hard wearing coarse cotton twill fabric of low
cost.
10 Genoa velvet A heavy velvet with a multi-coloured figured
pile on a smooth ground. It is a very expensive fabric.
11 Moquette A fabric having a pile which is cut, uncut or
in a combination of both.
Cut moquettes are made by weaving two fabrics face to face,
the pile being formed between, by interlacing both fabrics
simultaneously with warp threads. The pile is then cut by
a knife which travels between the fabrics. Another method
of weaving is by lifting the warp threads over wires which
are inserted in place of the weft. The pile is cut by the
wires as it is withdrawn. Uncut moquettes are made with two
warps, one of which forms the pile. Wires are inserted in
place of the weft, but unlike those used above, they have
no cutting edge. After weaving, the wires are withdrawn, leaving
a pile in the form of loops. Moquettes having a combination
of cut and uncut pile use cutting blade wires and plain wires.
They are extremely hard wearing, can be obtained in many designs
in both man-made and natural fibres but are generally very
expensive.
12 Plush A fabric having a longer but less dense pile than
velvet. It is in the medium to high price range.
13 Repp A plain woven fabric with ribs in the direction of
the weft. It is a very hard wearing fabric, in the medium
price range.
14 Sateen A fabric in which the weft float over the surface
of the warp forming a smooth surface. It can be made without
twill lines. The weave is also known as welt satin, and is
in the medium price range.
15 Satin A fabric in which the warp float over the surface
of the weft, forming a smooth surface. This weave is also
known as warp sateen.
16 Tapestry A jacquard figured fabric made from part or all
wool, with coarse yarns which can be made
in a variety of weaves. It can be obtained in many colours
and is very expensive.
17 Terry velvet An uncut loop pile velvet which is woven
over wires similar to the uncut moquette. It is very highly
priced.
18 Ti-need A simple twill weave fabric with a smooth, hard-wearing
surface. It is usually made from all wool, but other fibres
are also used. Due to its simple weave, the fabric is reasonably
priced.
19 Velour A warp pile fabric with a very short pile.
20 Velvet Produced with a double warp, one of which forms
the pile. The ground warp is woven with weft yarns through
which the pile is woven. A wire with a cutting blade is inserted
between the pile warp to form loops, which are cut as the
wire is extracted. Velvets are also made in a similar way
to cut moquettes, by weaving two fabrics face to face with
the pile between, which is sliced through the middle to separate
them. It is very highly priced.
21 Velveteen A weft pile fabric. It is woven with floating
weft yarns which are cut after applying a paste to the back
of the fabric to fix the yarns, so they do not move during
cutting.
Knitted fabrics
These arc used in woven fabric applications. They arc also
for covering plastics chair shells because their stretch properties
are well suited to fitting around the double curvature shapes
associated with these types of chair.
They are liable to damage by loop pulling and laddering, which
do not occur so frequently with woven covers. Damage is usually
caused during sewing and fitting of the cover. Laddering can
be caused by piercing the fabric with sewing needle, tacks
and staples. The fabric can also be damaged if too rigid a
seam is used for sewing, in which case the fabric might be
torn by the thread when it is being stretched during upholstering
or use. Foam or rubber backing a fabric lessens the chance
of laddering.
1 Warp knitted fabrics These can be woven to give an appearance
of either ordinary woven cloth or weft knits which are described
below. They can be produced faster than woven fabrics, and
are used in competition with them. They can be made with raised
or unraised loops and can be made ladder resistant (a disadvantage
associated with weft knits). They are woven mainly from continuous
filament yarns, and different types of surface texture can
be produced with either an open or closed structure. Knitting
styles vary with different machines, the difference between
machines being based on the number of needles and the thickness
of yarn which is used. Warp knits are so called because threads
run along the length of the fabric.
2 Weft knitted fabrics These fabrics have more stretch than
warp knitted fabrics. The fabric is made up of interlocking
loops of yarn. The loops are formed across the fabric with
a single thread. There are three basic types of weft knitted
fabrics used in upholstery: single jersey, double jersey and
interlock, all of which can be knitted with variations. The
former is a plain knitted fabric, and is very prone to laddering.
Double jersey has a rib structure, and is so called because
the stitches which lie in two planes tend to come together
to form a double fabric. Interlock is also a double rib fabric,
but it has interlocking cross yarns which prevent the fabric
from damaging easily.
Coated fabrics
Rexine made from nitrocellulose was the first plastic coated
fabric to be used, but has now been superseded by other plastics.
Polyvinyl chloride PVC fabrics have good abrasion resistance
and are easily cleaned. This makes them suitable for both
contract and domestic upholstery.
The properties of a coated fabric depend on the backing fabric,
the type, content and thickness of the coating material, the
adhesion between and the method of application of the coating
to the fabric, and the decoration of the surface. Many types
of backing fabric are used for strengthening the coating surface.
The cheapest fabrics have no backing, and tear more easily
than backed fabrics. Vynide has a woven backing fabric having
good abrasion and flexing properties. Other PVC materials
have knitted fabric backings to give the fabrics greater stretch
properties, making upholstering easier. Expanded and unexpanded
PVC are used in making coatings. Ambla and Cirrus are expanded
fabrics which are softer and warmer than plain PVC fabrics.
They are made by incorporating a blowing agent which expands
the mixture to give a thin layer of foam with an integral
skin of solid PVC. A plasticiser is added to PVC to give the
fabric certain properties. The type and quantity used affects
abrasion resistance and general flexibility.
PVC fabrics can be obtained in many colours. The amount and
type of pigment used affects the light stability of the fabric.
There are two methods of making the coated fabric, both of
which use PVC as a plastisol (paste). The doctor knife method
is the process usually used, in which the paste is spread
on the fabric by means of a roller and a doctor knife, which
control the thickness deposited as the fabric moves between
them on a conveyor. The fabric then passes through a heated
oven at i6o to i7o°C to gell the coating. An embossing
roller imprints the pattern on the surface, and the fabric
is rolled.
A second method, dip coating, involves passing the base fabric
through an impregnating bath containing the paste. Excess
paste is removed by rollers. Heating and embossing is carried
out as above.
Polyurethane
These fabrics are more like leather than other synthetics.
They are usually applied in a thinner coating than PVC. Like
PVC, they are air permeable, have good stain and abrasion
resistance, and are easy to clean and upholster with. They
can be finished with a matt or gloss `wet look'. Glossy fabrics
usually contain a two-component finish, and the fabrics are
tested to ensure that they will not delaminate through bad
adhesion of the two dissimilar coatings. Certain of these
fabrics also tend to be sticky.
Fabrics are divided into two groups governed by the method
of coating.
1 Direct coating involves spreading the polyurethane as a
viscous liquid directly on the base fabric by means of rollers.
A thicker and less stretchy fabric is formed by this method.
2 Transfer coating is more suitable for lighter coatings,
and is applied to knitted fabrics. The coating is applied
to a release paper, and is partially dried. The film is then
transferred and bonded to the backing. The release paper is
usually made from a strong kraft paper, which is coated with
release agent to release readily the coating from the paper,
and also a resin (polyurethane in this case). The paper can
be plain or embossed, depending on the surface requirements
for the fabric. The paper acts as a carrier to transport the
resin coating on to the fabric backing, after which it is
peeled off and can be used again. The general fabric properties
depend on the effectiveness of the coating process, and the
adhesion and thickness of the coating. This process is also
used with PVC.
Welding of PVC
The sewing of PVC can be avoided in mass production by using
a radio frequency heating welding machine. This machine can
form quilting patterns if suitable jigs are made, and it can
make a seam much faster than a sewing machine. Power output,
welding time and depth of sink of the welding blades are the
machine's variables, which need to be carefully regulated
according to the fabric in order to produce good welds.
The average weld strength of backed PVC is 42% of the fabric
strength. Thoughtful designing is needed to ensure that the
seam will not be highly stressed.
Hides
After a long absence from modern domestic upholstery, leather
is once again in demand as a covering material.
Cow hides of about 3.3 sq in (45 sq ft) arc obtained in irregular
shapes. They can be squared for easier planning of cutting,
but this raises the price of the hide Hides arc bought as
whole or half hides. The outer side is called the grain side,
and the inner side is the flesh side. Leather crushes easily,
so it should be rolled neatly with the grain on the outside
to prevent this.
Joins can be made on hides by skiving pieces together. This
is done by cutting the pieces to be joined at an angle so
that there is greater surface contact, and then gluing them
together.
The warble fly is the major cause of imperfections on a hide,
but barbed wire and bramble scratches also cause surface markings.
The holes heal on the animal to form scars which do not affect
the strength of the leather. Certain blemishes add to the
natural effect, while others need to be buffed out.
Hides are first washed, then left to soak in pits containing
lime and sodium sulphide. This aids removal of hair. The hides
are split into layers, the top layer being used for best upholstery
leather, and the bottom or flesh split being used for suede
leather. The leather is dc-limed, and is passed to the currier
in the rough tanned condition. The rough hides are sorted
into groups, based on their ultimate use. They are then soaked
in water and allowed to equalise in moisture content with
the surroundings.
Skiving leather
The hides are shaved on the underside to give them a level
substance (thickness) before they enter the drum house where
tanning is continued by introducing oil into the leather in
the form of an emulsion. The hides pass from drum to drum,
alternating between cleaning and re-tanning by specially prepared
warm liquors. Chemicals are added to guard against rotting.
The hides enter the setting-out machine, which contains rubber
rollers between which the hides pass, extracting most of the
moisture from the hides. They are transferred to the stretching
shop, where they arc stretched to facilitate drying. It is
not the aim of stretching to make them larger in area. They
are dried under controlled relative humidity and temperature
to ensure uniform drying throughout their substance.
The hides are now in the russet state. Those for use in upholstery
are re-sorted before staining. Those selected as buffed antique
hides are sent to the buffing shop, those for printing to
the printing shop, and those for natural fall gain hides arc
left unfinished.
Stained hides are sprayed with aniline dyes. The colour is
rubbed into the grain, the surplus is wiped off, and the hides
arc dried in an oven. Hides which are unsuitable for a natural
grain finish, owing to blemishes, are embossed with an artificial
grain. They are then placed in a revolving drum for several
hours to produce a crushed effect.
The full grain hide has an undisturbed surface, all natural
grain and blemishes being left intact.
A buffed antique finish is given to hides which are unsuitable
for other finishing treatments, owing to bad surface markings.
The blemishes are removed from the surface of the hide by
a machine containing cylinders which arc covered with carborundum
paper. The hide is then embossed and finished in a similar
way to the full grain hide. This type of hide is the cheapest
upholstery hide produced.
Trimmings
Self-piping or ruche is often used as an alternative to having
plain seams along cushion borders, etc.
1 Self piping consists of piping made from the same material
as the covering fabric.
2 Ruche can be obtained in shades to match most covers. One
edge of the ruche is suitable for sewing into the seams of
the fabric. There are three main types of ruche.
(i) Cut ruche consisting of a continuous closely woven thread,
with a cut pile surface.
(ii) Loop ruche which is similar, but its pile is not cut.
(iii) Rope ruche which is made in the form of rope, with
decorative threads on the surface.
3 Braid and gimp is a decorative band of material which is
glued or gimp pinned along the edge of upholstery, particularly
where the cover finishes against a show-wood frame.
4 Upholstery nails are used as an alternative to slip stitching
to finish a job. They are hammered in to the frame at regular
intervals, after folding in the raw edge of the material.
They are commonly used on plastics coated fabrics which are
difficult to sew by hand. Nails can be obtained with a brass
or antique finish, or in colours to match a fabric.
5 Fringe is gimp-pinned or sewn around the perimeter of upholstered
furniture as an added decoration. It consists of loose, twisted
threads which hang from a length of braid. It can also be
obtained with tassels.
Care and cleaning of fabrics
All upholstery should be cleaned regularly with a vacuum cleaner
or a soft brush to prevent dust from settling in the fabric.
When fixed upholstery covers require cleaning, which should
not be too infrequently, a special dry foam upholstery cleaner
can be bought, which cleans the fabric without damaging the
underneath padding.
Most loose fabrics can be taken off and washed by hand or
in a washing machine. Fabrics react differently to washing
and heat, so the recommended washing and ironing instructions
should be followed. If no washing instructions have been given
with the fabric, it is safer to consult a dry-cleaner. Plastics
coated fabrics need only to be wiped over with a damp, soapy
cloth, followed by a dry duster, in order to keep them looking
like new. Polishes should not be used on these fabrics.
Man-made fibres
These are being used in an ever-increasing quantity for upholstery
fabrics. Although wool is still one of the better fibres,
its high price is restricting its use, and man-made fibres
are necessary to provide wool equivalents at lower cost. Man-made
fibres also offer properties which are not available in natural
fibres. Each fibre has its own characteristics, and by blending
natural and man-made fibres, many desirable properties can
be incorporated into a fabric. For instance, the addition
of a coarse denier, long staple rayon to wool will increase
its strength and abrasion resistance.
Yarns made from man-made fibres can be produced with a lustrous
or matt finish, and with different forms of texture, giving
different grades of strength and abrasion resistance.
All man-made fibres are produced by taking a fibre-forming
substance (a polymer), converting it into liquid form, forcing
the liquid through a `spinneret' having very fine holes, and
causing the streams of liquid to solidify as fibres. This
process is carried out in different ways, depending on the
chemical nature of the fibre.
Man-made fibres are available in two forms: continuous filament
and staple filament yarn. Continuous filament yarn contains
from one to one hundred or more individual filaments. The
thickness of the yarn is indicated by the denier. Continuous
filament yarns are produced from is denier to 2000 denim.
Staple fibre is obtained by cutting a thick rope of filaments
(a tour) into fibres of the required length. 25 mm to 200
mm (1 in. to 8 in.) fibres can be made depending on the spinning
system to be employed.
TEXTILE TERMS
1 Boucle yarn A decorative yarn having loops or knots at regular
intervals, and made from two or more threads which are twisted
together.
2 Bulked yarn A textured yarn, consisting of a crimped or
folded yarn which gives bulk, softness and warmth to a fabric.
It is made from man-made fibres to resemble wool. Bulking
changes the original Fibre properties.
3 Catalyst A substance which is added to speed up a chemical
reaction, without taking part in the reaction itself.
4 Crimp The waviness of a fibre. It is found naturally in
wool, but it can be inserted permanently into man-made fibres
by heat setting. It is used in textured yarns to give bulk.
5 Denier The term applied to filament man-made fibres and
silk, and is the measure of thickness of a yarn. The denier
is the weight in grammes of 9000 metres of yarn.
6 End, The term given to individual warp threads.
7 Filament A continuous fibre, obtained after melt spinning
a man-made fibre mixture. Filaments arc naturally obtained
in silk.
8 Picks The term given to individual weft threads. The number
of picks per centimetre (inch) depends on the yarn count and
the closeness of the weave.
9 Plain weave The simplest but closest method of weaving.
10 Selvedge Provided along the edges of a fabric to give
a firm and strong edge. The selvedge is made by including
extra end warp yarns which are either of the same or different
but stronger material.
11 Staple Short fibres. A man-made fibre filament can be
cut into short lengths to form staple fibres. Natural fibres
are obtained in staple form.
12 Stretch yarn A textured yarn which is made to give a fabric
elasticity. It is similar to a bulked yarn but has more stretch.
13 Tex A metric system of yarn numbering which, it is hoped,
will supersede and rationalise all other methods. It measures
the weight in grammes of zooo metres of fibres and natural
or man-made yarns. Different units are used within the system
militex = milligrammes per kilometre kilotex = kilogrammes
per kilometre decitex = decigrammes per kilometre.
14 Twill weave This weave produces diagonal lines across
the surface of a fabric.
15 Warp The threads which run along the length of a fabric.
16 Weft These threads run across the fabric at right angles
to the warp.
17 Yarn count A measure of yarn thickness. It is calculated
by an indirect method of measurement, usually based on the
pound unit. This method measures length per unit weight as
opposed to the direct method which measures weight per unit
length. In the indirect method, the coarser yarns have lower
numbers, but by the direct method, the coarser the yarn, the
higher is the number. The denier and tex systems work by the
direct method.
Weaving
All woven fabrics are produced on a loom. The basic principle
of weaving involves holding the warp yarns under tension,
and interlacing with weft yarns. The weft yarns are held in
shuttles which are sent across the warp threads as required,
after raising the chosen warp ends.
Jacquard loom
This loom allows complex repeat patterns to be woven. The
pattern of the fabric is transferred to rectangular cards
by means of punched holes. Each line of picks uses one card.
There are as many cards as there are picks in each repeat
pattern. The cards are laced together and fitted in a belt
on the loom. Needles are fitted to the loom which come into
contact with the cards. Where holes have been punched in the
cards, the needles enter, which causes the associated warp
threads to be raised. After the weft yarn has been inserted,
the needles withdraw and the next card comes into place to
restart the cycle. Another type of loom uses a long strip
of thick paper instead of individual cards.
The martindale abrasion machine
This is considered to be the most reliable machine for determining
the abrasion resistance of the majority of woven fabrics.
Fabrics having certain textured yarns and those with long
piles are unsuitable for testing. This test is understood
by the average consumer, and salesmen often talk about fabrics
having a particular number of rubs.
Tests need to be carried out under controlled conditions of
temperature and humidity, and an average is found from the
results of a number of tests. A figure of 3S,ooo rubs is considered
to be the minimum acceptable number for domestic upholstery
fabrics, but results of over 40,000 rubs arc necessary for
hard wearing fabrics suitable for contract use.
Specimens arc cut into 36 mm diameter discs, and are clamped
into the abrading head over 3 mm thickness of foam. Four specimens
are simultaneously. Specimens should be examined at certain
stages to note any change, which can be assessed as follows:
1 The partial exposure of backing structure.
2 Removal of pile from a pile fabric, exposing the backing.
3 Breaking of the threads.
4 Removal of nap from the surface.
5 Rate ofweight loss. Specimens should be weighed every 1000
rubs.
6 Pilling This is the forming of small balls of fluff on the
surface.
7 Testing to destruction. This is not as useful a test as
when the fabric is tested for earlier deterioration.
STRIPPING AND REPAIRING THE FRAME
The cover and materials should be stripped in reverse order
to the upholstering. The usual sequence is to remove the base
cover, followed by the outside back, outside arms, seat, inside
back, and inside arms. It is important to remember the order
in which the frame was upholstered, and also where trimmings
have been used on the cover. The piece of furniture being
stripped should always be in a suitable position for working.
These positions should be used for upholstering as well as
stripping. If certain parts arc not being recovered, or the
cover is to be replaced after repair to the frame, it is important
not to damage the fabric. This can be prevented by resting
the covered frame on some cloth or padding, placed on the
floor and on the bench.
If the inside springing and padding are in good condition,
it might be possible to leave them on the job, if the upholsterer
is sure that by doing so, it does not impede the fixing of
the new cover. If the padding has been flattened, a layer
of felt placed over the old padding will help to build up
its resilience again.
The old cover should be saved so that the pieces can be used
as patterns for cutting the new cover. Extra cover should
be allowed in places where it can be seen that cover has been
trimmed from the original piece. Hessian flies should also
be fitted where they are thought to be necessary.
The frame can be altered for modernisation of the design.
If this is done, the old cover must not be used for patterns,
but new measurements need to be taken around the frame after
fitting the padding.
Tools required for frame repairs
1 Brace and bit This is used for drilling out broken dowels,
and for drilling new dowel holes. It is also used for drilling
castor holes. The brace can be used with screwdriver bits.
2 Hand drill Required for drilling screw pilot holes. These
prevent splitting the timber, and also make screwing easier.
A countersink bit is also required.
3 Screwdrivers These are required if screwdriver bits for
the brace are not available.
4 Tenon saw This s used for cutting rails to length, for
cutting corner blocks, and for cutting off old dowels before
re-drilling the holes.
5 Sash crams At least two are necessary to ensure correct
setting of a glued joint. If none is available, a length of
joined wire can be used with which to improvise. The cramp
action of tightening a joint will occur when, with the aid
of a lever, thee wire is twisted.
6 Rasp This is used to chamfer the sharp edge of a rail where
there is a danger that the edge will cut through the padding,
and make a hole in the fabric. It is necessary to round the
inside of rails where rubber webbing is to be fitted, and
the edge over which a roll is to be stitched.
7 Bevel This tool is useful for measuring angles, such as
when marking out corner blocks.
Materials
1 Timber This should be straight and close grained, with
a medium degree of hardness, and free from knots which reduce
its strength. The timber should be able to retain tacks, but
it should not be too hard to make their insertion difficult.
Timber which is too hard also stands a greater chance of being
split by tacks.
Beech is usually quoted as being the most suitable for frame
construction, but choice depends on availability. Birch, maple
and poplar are only three of the many that are available.
2 Dowels These can be obtained in a number of different diameter
sizes, in either continuous or cut lengths. Dowels, 38 mm
long with a 9 mm diameter arc a convenient size to use.
3 Screws Countersunk head wood screws are used in the construction
of frames, as they arc not needed to give a decorative effect.
Oversize screws might split a rail, so the size should be
carefully chosen. 35 mm to 60 mm screws in an 8 gauge arc
those most frequently used.
4 Nails These arc often used as a substitute for screws.
They should not be used in place of screws or joints, but
should only be used in positions where they will not be stressed,
such as for the fixing of plywood.
5 Glue There arc many types of glue on the market for wood
joints. Animal glue is very flexible and is a good gap filler,
which arc the main reasons for its continued use in frames.
It is bought in cakes and is used hot, but it should not be
allowed to boil. The glue sets on cooling.
PVA (polyvinyl acetate) is gaining ground as a glue for chair
frames, but it does not match the properties of animal glue.
Bostik and Evo-stick are synthetic glues which are more easily
applied. The manufacturer's instructions for application must
be followed.
Repairing the frame
1 Repairing and making new dowel joints Dowelling is the most
suitable joint for chair construction. The joint stands up
well to the battering and flexing to which chair frames are
prone.
The number of dowels needed for each joint varies from between
one and three, depending on the size of the joint, and the
amount of stress it is to take.
Old dowels firstly need to be extracted. If the glue bond
has broken, it is easy to pull them out. Otherwise, they will
have to be drilled out. The brace, fitted with a bit of the
same diameter as that of the dowel, will prepare a new hole
at the same time as it extracts the dowel. The hole should
be drilled slightly deeper than half the length of the dowel
to allow for excess glue. Glue should be applied to the dowel
hole only. On cramping, the glue will run up the side of the
dowel to the joint surface. The dowel should be either grooved
all round, or a saw cut should be made down one side of the
dowel, to allow an escape route for excess glue. This avoids
pressure being set up at the bottom of the hole when the glue
is compressed by the dowel, and thus avoids the chance of
splitting the timber.
After gluing one set of dowel holes, locate the dowel pins
into the holes. Now add glue to the other half of the joint,
and connect and cramp the complete joint until the glue sets.
2 Fitting new corner blocks New corner blocks should be fitted
in the seat if the existing ones are in a poor condition.
Nailed blocks should be reinforced with screws.
Cut the blocks with a tenon saw, making slight adjustments
to the angles, to ensure a close fit. Drill the screw pilot
holes perpendicular to the sawn edge. If castors are to be
fitted into the blocks, drill holes to hold the sockets.
Corner blocks can also be fitted to a chair back if the design
permits, and if their addition will be beneficial to the back's
strength.
3 Curing other loose joints A loose joint can be simply repaired
by re-gluing and cramping. A few extra screws inserted through
the joint at an angle will give the joint extra strength.
Drilled and countersunk pilot holes are necessary to insert
the screw at the correct angle, and to ensure that the angled
screw heads do not remain above the surface of the rail.
Screws should not be inserted into the end grain of timber
because screws do not grip very well from this direction.
4 Fitting new rails A broken or weakened rail needs to be
replaced by a new one. The timber need not be the same as
the rest of the frame. Cut the rail to the size of the old
rail, and accurately mark out the dowel holes to correspond
with their pairing holes. To fit the rail, it might be necessary
to loosen some of the other joints, which will have to be
re-glued and cramped at the same time as the new rail is being
cramped.
5 Frame not symetrical This is found on new frames which
have not been assembled correctly. A small amount of unevenness
can be hidden by the upholstery, but a frame which is significantly
out of square will need to be re-glued and cramped at the
necessary joints.
SIMPLE UPHOLSTERY REPAIRS
There are various reasons for having to carry out repairs.
Below are mentioned a few of the causes, with the required
action to be taken.
Broken seat webbing
This occurs on chairs which have been upholstered with hour-glass
springs on a webbing base. It is characterised by a sagging
seat, which is often thought to have been caused by broken
springs.
If it has occurred in the seat, which is the most likely place,
invert the chair and remove the base cover. Rip out the broken
webbing, after cutting the knots holding them to the springs.
Stretch new webbing over the positions of the old webbing,
and re-sew the springs to the webbing. For greater detail
of the correct methods of fitting webbing and sewing in springs.
Webbing does not need to be broken before new webbing is fitted.
New webbing can also be fitted when the old webbing has gone
slack, which also causes the seat to sag. In this case, the
old webbing need not be ripped out but should be supported
by the new webbing. The springs should be re-sewn to the webbing
as before.
Changing castors
This only needs the simple operation of extracting the old
castor and replacing it with a new one. Some castors have
different size sockets, so it might be necessary to re-drill
the hole to make it larger, or a smaller hole might have to
be drilled by the side of the existing one. Do not drill into
a screw holding a corner block to the frame. Castors can also
be changed from socket to plate fixing, and vice versa. If
the corner blocks upon which the castors are mounted are in
bad condition.
Damaged fabric
Fabric is easily damaged. Whether it is done by the family's
pet dog or by a dropped cigarette, the requirement is still
the same: a new fabric panel is usually needed.
Sometimes, with certain stretchy fabrics, depending where
the damage is, it might be possible to stretch the fabric
until the mark is hidden. With other fabrics such as moquettes,
where threads have pulled, new threads can be carefully sewn
in with a slipping needle, the thread being obtained from
a piece of fabric in an inconspicuous place such as from underneath
the base cover. This latter repair should only be used when
a new fabric panel is not obtainable.
To match the fabric, send a pattern to the original manufacturers
of the upholstery or the fabric supplier. If the cloth is
obsolete, the repair can either be matched with a near shade
or pattern, or the upholstery will have to be recovered completely
in another cover.
If the fabric can be obtained, it can be fitted directly over
the old cover, but it is better to remove the old cover before
re-fitting. There is less work involved if the outside back
is damaged than if the inside arm is damaged. Fitting inside
covers becomes more complicated because other parts of the
upholstery need to be loosened to allow for correct fitting.
Take off the old cover and use it as a pattern for cutting
new cover
MARKING OUT AND CUTTING THE COVER
Cover is the costliest material used in upholstery, and thoughtful
planning of parts is essential to keep the cost as low as
possible.
1 Collecting the roll of cover from the stores and laying
it on the table.
2 Marking with the aid of patterns.
3Sorting and bundling the cover in preparation for sewing.
One cutter can be used to perform all the operations, or
the job can be split so that two or more operatives of differing
labour value work on different sections of the process. Cover
can be cut either singly or in layers. Shears can be used
for cutting up to about five layers of cover, but electrical
cutter knives arc needed for greater thicknesses.
Because the home handyman does no repetitive cutting, he
needs to measure each piece of cover either directly from
the job, or from pieces being stripped for recovering. If
possible, an economical cutting plan should be worked out
on paper before starting to cut.The cutting table should be
the stage where all the damages in the fabric are noticed.
If they are missed at this point, there is a danger that the
damaged fabric will go unnoticed until at the final inspection
stage of the upholstery when it will be more costly to repair.
To prevent this from happening, it is important that the cutting
table should be provided with good overhead lighting.
Fabrics having no pile but with ribs running in one direction,
can be cut to display the ribs running either down and forwards,
or across the job. Lines running downwards tend to make a
job appear higher, while those running across make the job
appear wider. The latter method usually gives the better effect.
If there is a pile to the cover, cut it so that the pile will
run downwards or forwards on the upholstery. Cut a patterned
fabric so that the pattern will be displayed to its best advantage.
This is usually achieved by centralising the pattern in a
panel. Mark out with white or blue tailor's chalk, using a
pattern or template. Cut all the large pieces first. Allow
a 9 mm (8 in.) sewing seam where necessary. Slight allowances
in size may also need to be made if the fabric is expected
to stretch during upholstering.
When cutting settees, joinings will probably have to be made
in the length of the back and seat. Cut two equal joining
pieces, and sew them to each side of the panel, so that they
are equally spaced on the upholstery. Joinings can also be
made in piping, borders, etc. Cut strips of cover about 35
mm wide for piping.
Advantages and disadvantages of cutting singly and in layers
1 Most manufacturers sell many different designs in a wide
range of covers. With this policy there is no scope for cutting
in layers. Only if a company can sell a limited number of
designs in a set number of fabrics, can bulk cutting be used
to advantage.
2 There is not much difference in the time taken to cut one
layer and many layers. Therefore labour costs can be reduced
by cutting in bulk.
3 It is more difficult to correct damages in fabrics when
cutting in layers.
4 Stripes and patterns cannot be used to their best advantage
when cutting in layers.
USING THE SEWING MACHINE
Sewing the cut cover in preparation for upholstering is the
next stage after cutting.
Stitch type
The usual type of machine stitch used in upholstery is the
lock stitch. This is formed using a needle thread and a bobbin
thread. The thread from the bobbin, which is fitted beneath
the throat plate, passes through a loop formed by the needle
thread. The amount of thread on the bobbin limits the time
when sewing can be continued, before the bobbin needs to be
re-wound. The tension on the machine needs to be accurately
controlled, so that the two threads meet in the middle of
the fabric. If the tension is incorrect, the intersection
will occur on the surface of the cover, which is a main cause
of fault in sewing.
Knitted fabrics
The chain stitch and the overlock stitch are used on knitted
stretch fabrics because these stitches contain strongly looped
threads which are flexible to expand and contract with the
cover. The two types of stitch can also be incorporated into
one stitch, which is known as stitch type 512.
These seams require closer stitching than the lock stitch
seam, and they use more thread which is put into use during
stretching of the cover. Knitted stretch fabrics usually need
to be overlocked along the edges to prevent the cover from
laddering. Overlocking can also be used on normal woven fabrics,
to prevent fraying of the edges. Overlocking is an edge binding
stitch which provides a neat finish to an edge, and also trims
the edge. Weft knitted fabrics should be overlocked, but this
is not always necessary with warp knitted fabrics which do
not stretch as much as the former.
Overlock and chain stitches can unravel if one of the threads
are broken, which does not occur with the lock stitch. Both
types of stitch should be sewn using finer needles than those
used for the lock stitch. Synthetic thread should be used
as this stretches more than the normal cotton thread.
Machine needles
Heavy industrial machines are used in an upholstery factory
machine room, but most types of machine can be used if they
are fitted with a needle of correct size, to sew the usually
heavy-weight covers. A machine needle size between 16 and
i9 should be used on most materials. Plastics coated fabrics,
however, are easily cut by a sewing machine needle, so a finer
needle between 9 and 11 should be used on these.
Machine adjustments
The stitch length should be adjusted to the weight of the
cover. 6 to 12 stitches per 25 mm should be used, the larger
stitches being used on plastics coated fabrics and the thinner
covers. The tension of the machine should be regulated for
sewing different weights of cover and for different types
of machine thread. Less tension is needed when using a synthetic
thread than when using cotton thread.
Sewing components of a machine
Twin needle machines
Double seams are becoming popular as a decoration. Twin needle
machines are available in conventional form and as a post
type, in which the throat plate is raised on a column about
250 mm above the working table.
Corners are sewn on the machine by stopping the machine as
soon as the inside needle reaches the corner. The inside needle
is raised out of the way, and the other needle sews around
the corner. Once around the corner, the inside needle is lowered
into operation again.
Synthetic machine thread
Synthetic thread is more expensive than plain cotton thread,
but it is finer, tougher, and more economical in use.
Because it is finer, more thread can be wound on a bobbin,
so less time is spent in changing and rewinding it. Also,
because of its fineness, less thread is used in stitching.
Synthetic thread has better elastic properties which are necessary
for knitted fabrics.
Sewing piping
Piping can be used on most seams as an alternative to plain
seams. A piping foot attachment should be fitted to the machine
to simplify sewing. The piping foot enables a seam to be made
close to the piping cord.
General hints on sewing
1When sewing around a corner, cut darts into the seam to make
sewing simpler.
2 When sewing joinings, shade the cover, making sure that
the pile runs in one direction.
3 When joining two cover panels, notch the centre of each
and machine from the centre marks, to ensure that the panels
are centralised equally.
4 When sewing hessian flies, turn the edge of the hessian
over so that the seam runs through a double thickness of hessian.
5 The sewing of cushions is where most accuracy is needed.
Make sure that all corners of the cushion are sewn correctly.
GENERAL UPHOLSTERING TECHNIQUES
Conversion with foam
Latex is often moulded to manufacturers' requirements when
the quantity ordered is large enough to justify the outlay
for making special moulds. When the number of products is
not large enough to warrant this, the shapes are made up by
hand cutting and joining piece | 
